Meat processing improving quality

Meat processing Improving quality Edited by Joseph Kerry, John Kerry and David Ledward Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First published 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information-storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited or CRC Press LLC for such copying. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 1 85573 583 0 (book); 1 85573 666 7 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-1539-5 CRC Press order number: WP1539 Cover design by Martin Tacchi Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire (macfarl@aol.com) Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England Related titles from Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition list: Meat refrigeration (ISBN: 1 85573 442 7) Based on the work of the internationally renowned Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC) at the University of Bristol, this will be the standard work on meat refrigeration, covering both individual quality issues and the management of the cold chain from carcass to consumer. Lawrie’s meat science Sixth edition (ISBN: 1 85573 395 1) This book remains a standard for both students and professionals in the meat industry. It provides a systematic account of meat science from the conception of the animal until human consumption, presenting the fundamentals of meat science. This sixth edition incorporates the significant advances in meat science which have taken place during the past decade including our increasingly precise understanding of the structure of the muscle, as well as the identification of the aberrations in DNA which lead to the development of BSE syndrome in meat. HACCP in the meat industry (ISBN: 1 85573 448 6) Following the crises involving BSE and E.coli, the meat industry has been left with an enormous consumer confidence problem. In order to regain the trust of the general public the industry must establish and adhere to strict hygiene and hazard control systems. HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation and control of food safety hazards. It is being applied across the world, with countries such as the US, Australia, New Zealand and the UK leading the way. However, effective implementation in the meat industry remains difficult and controversial. This book is a survey of key principles and best practice, providing an authoritative guide to making HACCP systems work successfully in the meat industry. Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com • contacting Customer Services (email: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext. 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: francisd@woodhead-publishing.com). Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in. Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 D. Ledward, The University of Reading 2 Defining meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 T. Becker, University of Honenheim, Stuttgart 2.1 Introduction: what is quality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2 Consumer perceptions of quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.3 Supplier perceptions of quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4 Combining consumer and supplier perceptions: the quality circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.5 Regulatory definitions of quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.6 Improving meat and meat product quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Part I Analysing meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3 Factors affecting the quality of raw meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 R. K. Miller, Texas A & M University, College Station 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.2 Quality meat composition and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.3 Breed and genetic effects on meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4 Dietary influences on meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.5 Rearing and meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.6 Slaughtering and meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.7 Other influences on meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Contents 3.8 Summary: ensuring consistency in raw meat quality . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.9 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4 The nutritional quality of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 J. Higgs, Food to Fit, Towcester and B. Mulvihill, Republic of Ireland 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.2 Meat and cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.3 Meat, fat content and disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.4 Fatty acids in meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.5 Protein in meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.6 Meat as a ‘functional’ food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.7 Meat and micronutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.8 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5 Lipid-derived flavors in meat products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 F. Shahidi, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.2 The role of lipids in generation of meaty flavors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.3 Lipid autoxidation and meat flavor deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.4 The effect of ingredients on flavor quality of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.5 The evaluation of aroma compounds and flavor quality . . . . . . . 116 5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 6 Modelling colour stability in meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 M. Jakobsen and G. Bertelsen, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.2 External factors affecting colour stability during packaging and storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 6.3 Modelling dynamic changes in headspace composition . . . . . . . . 123 6.4 Modelling in practice: fresh beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 6.5 Modelling in practice: cured ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.6 Internal factors affecting colour stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.7 Validation of models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.8 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 6.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 7 The fat content of meat and meat products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 A. P. Moloney, Teagasc, Dunsany 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 7.2 Fat and the consumer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 vi Contents 7.3 The fat content of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 7.4 Animal effects on the fat content and composition of meat . . . 141 7.5 Dietary effects on the fat content and composition of meat . . . 144 7.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 7.7 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Part II Measuring quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 8 Quality indicators for raw meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 M. D. Aaslyng, Danish Meat Research Institute, Roskilde 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 8.2 Technological quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 8.3 Eating quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 8.4 Determining eating quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 8.5 Sampling procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 8.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 8.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 8.8 Acknowledgemnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 9 Sensory analysis of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 G. R. Nute, University of Bristol 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 9.2 The sensory panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 9.3 Sensory tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 9.4 Category scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 9.5 Sensory profile methods and comparisons with instrumental measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 9.6 Comparisons between countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 9.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 9.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 10 On-line monitoring of meat quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 H. J. Swatland, University of Guelph 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 10.2 Measuring electrical impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 10.3 Measuring pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 10.4 Analysing meat properties using NIR spectrophotometry . . . . . 201 10.5 Measuring meat colour and other properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 10.6 Water-holding capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 10.7 Sarcomere length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 10.8 Connective tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 10.9 Marbling and fat content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 10.10 Meat flavour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 10.11 Boar taint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Contents vii 10.12 Emulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 10.13 Measuring changes during cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 10.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 10.15 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 10.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11 Microbiological hazard identification in the meat industry . . . 217 P. J. McClure, Unilever Research, Sharnbrook 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 11.2 The main hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 11.3 Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 11.4 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 11.5 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Part III New techniques for improving quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 12 Modelling beef cattle production to improve quality . . . . . . . . . . 239 K. G. Rickert, University of Queensland, Gatton 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 12.2 Elements of beef cattle production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 12.3 Challenges for modellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 12.4 Simple model of herd structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 12.5 Future developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 13 New developments in decontaminating raw meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 C. James, Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC), University of Bristol 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 13.2 Current decontamination techniques and their limitations . . . . . 260 13.3 Washing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 13.4 The use of chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 13.5 New methods: steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 13.6 Other new methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 13.7 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 13.8 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 14 Automated meat processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 K. B. Madsen and J. U. Nielsen, Danish Meat Research Institute, Roskilde 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 14.2 Current developments in robotics in the meat industry . . . . . . . . 284 14.3 Automation in pig slaughtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 viii Contents 14.4 Case study: the evisceration process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 14.5 Automation of secondary processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 14.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294