Bài giảng Financial Management - Chapter 21: Term Loans and Leases

Chapter 21Term Loans and LeasesAfter Studying Chapter 21, you should be able to:Describe various types of term loans and discuss the costs and benefits of each. Discuss the nature and the content of loan agreements, including protective (restrictive) covenants. Discuss the sources and types of equipment financing.Understand and explain lease financing in its various forms. Compare lease financing with debt financing via a numerical evaluation of the present value of cash outflows. Term Loans and LeasesTerm LoansProvisions of Loan AgreementsEquipment FinancingLease FinancingEvaluating Lease Financing in Relation to Debt FinancingTerm Loan – Debt originally scheduled for repayment in more than 1 year, but generally in less than 10 years. Term LoansCredit is extended under a formal loan arrangement.Usually payments that cover both interest and principal are made quarterly, semiannually, or annually.The repayment schedule is geared to the borrower’s cash-flow ability and may be amortized or have a balloon payment.Costs of a Term LoanThe interest rate is higher than on a short-term loan to the same borrower (25 to 50 basis points on a low risk borrower).Interest rates are either (1) fixed or (2) variable depending on changing market conditions – possibly with a floor or ceiling.Borrower is also required to pay legal expenses (loan agreement) and a commitment fee (25 to 75 basis points) may be imposed on the unused portion.Benefits of a Term LoanThe borrower can tailor a loan to their specific needs through direct negotiation with the lender.Flexibility in terms of changing needs allows the borrower to revise the loan more quickly and more easily.Term loan financing is more readily available over time making it a more dependable source of financing than, say, the capital markets.Revolving Credit AgreementsAgreements are frequently for three years. The actual notes are usually 90 days, but the company can renew them per the agreement.Most useful when funding needs are uncertain.Many are set up so at maturity the borrower has the option of converting into a term loan.Revolving Credit Agreement – A formal, legal commitment to extend credit up to some maximum amount over a stated period of time.Insurance Company Term LoansThese term loans usually have final maturities in excess of seven years.These companies do not have compensating balances to generate additional revenue and usually have a prepayment penalty.Loans must yield a return commensurate with the risks and costs involved in making the loan.As such, the rate is typically higher than what a bank would charge, but the term is longer.Medium-Term NoteMaturities range from 9 months to 30 years (or more).Shelf registration makes it practical for corporate issuers to offer small amounts of MTNs to the public.Issuers include finance companies, banks or bank holding companies, and industrial companies.Medium-Term Note (MTN) – A corporate or government debt instrument that is offered to investors on a continuous basis. Euro MTN – An MTN issue sold internationally outside the country in whose currency the MTN is denominated. Provisions of Loan AgreementsCovenant – A restriction on a borrower imposed by a lender; for example, the borrower must maintain a minimum amount of working capital. This allows the lender to act (or be “warned” early) when adverse developments are occurring that will affect the borrowing firm.Loan Agreement – A legal agreement specifying the terms of a loan and the obligations of the borrower.Formulation of ProvisionsGeneral provisions are used in most loan agreements, which are usually variable to fit the situation.Routine provisions used in most loan agreements, which are usually not variable.Specific provisions that are used according to the situation.The important protective covenants* fall into three different categories.* Restrictions are negotiated between the borrower and lenderFrequent General ProvisionsWorking capital requirementCash dividend and repurchase of common stock restrictionCapital expenditures limitationLimitation on other indebtednessFrequent Routine ProvisionsFurnish financial statements and maintain adequate insurance to the lenderMust not sell a significant portion of its assets and pay all liabilities as requiredNegative pledge clauseCannot sell or discount accounts receivableProhibited from entering into any leasing arrangement of property Restrictions on other contingent liabilitiesEquipment FinancingLoans are usually extended for more than 1 year.The lender evaluates the marketability and quality of equipment to determine the loanable percentage.Repayment schedules are designed by the lender so that the market value is expected to exceed the loan balance by a given safety margin.Trucking equipment is highly marketable, and the lender may advance as much as 80% of market value, while a limited use lathe might provide only a 40% advance or a specific use item cannot be used as collateral.Sources and Types of Equipment Financing1. Chattel Mortgage – A lien on specifically identified personal property (assets other than real estate) backing a loan.To perfect (make legally valid) the lien, the lender files a copy of the security agreement or a financing statement with a public office of the state in which the equipment is located.Sources of financing are commercial banks, finance companies, and sellers of equipment.Types of financingSources and Types of Equipment FinancingThe buyer signs a conditional sales contract security agreement to make installment payments (usually monthly or quarterly) over time.The seller has the authority to repossess the equipment if the buyer does not meet all of the terms of the contract.The seller can sell the contract without the buyer’s consent – usually to a finance company or bank.2. Conditional Sales Contract – A means of financing provided by the seller of equipment, who holds title to it until the financing is paid off.Lease FinancingExamples of familiar leases Apartments Houses Offices AutomobilesLease – A contract under which one party, the lessor (owner) of an asset, agrees to grant the use of that asset to another, the lessee, in exchange for periodic rental payments.Issues in Lease FinancingAdvantage: Use of an asset without purchasing the assetObligation: Make periodic lease paymentsContract specifies who maintains the assetFull-service lease – lessor pays maintenanceNet lease – lessee pays maintenance costsCancelable or noncancelable lease?Operating lease (short-term, cancellable) vs. financial lease (longer-term, noncancelable)Options at expiration to lesseeTypes of LeasingThe lessor realizes any residual value.There may be a tax advantage as land is not depreciable, but the entire lease payment is a deductible expense.Lessors: insurance companies, institutional investors, finance companies, and independent companies.Sale and Leaseback – The sale of an asset with the agreement to immediately lease it back for an extended period of time.Types of LeasingThe firm often leases an asset directly from a manufacturer (e.g., IBM leases computers and Xerox leases copiers).Lessors: manufacturers, finance companies, banks, independent leasing companies, special-purpose leasing companies, and partnerships.Direct Leasing – Under direct leasing a firm acquires the use of an asset it did not previously own.Types of LeasingPopular for big-ticket assets such as aircraft, oil rigs, and railway equipment.The role of the lessor changes as the lessor is borrowing funds itself to finance the lease for the lessee (hence, leveraged lease).Any residual value belongs to the lessor as well as any net cash inflows during the lease.Leverage Leasing – A lease arrangement in which the lessor provides an equity portion (usually 20 to 40 percent) of the leased asset’s cost and third-party lenders provide the balance of the financing.Accounting and Tax Treatment of LeasesIn the past, leases were “off-balance-sheet” items and hid the true obligations of some firms.The lessee can deduct the full lease payment in a properly structured lease. To be a “true lease” the IRS requires:Lessor must have a minimum “at-risk” (inception and throughout lease) of 20% or more of the acquisition cost.The remaining life of the asset at the end of the lease period must be the longer of 1 year or 20% of original estimated asset life.An expected profit to the lessor from the lease contract apart from any tax benefits.Economic Rationale for LeasingLeasing allows higher-income taxable companies to own equipment (lessor) and take accelerated depreciation, while a marginally profitable company (lessee) would prefer the advantages afforded by leases.Thus, leases provide a means of shifting tax benefits to companies that can fully utilize those benefits.Other non-tax issues: economies of scale in the purchase of assets; different estimates of asset life, salvage value, or the opportunity cost of funds; and the lessor’s expertise in equipment selection and maintenance.“Should I Lease or Should I Buy?”Basket Wonders (BW) is deciding between leasing a new machine or purchasing the machine outright.The equipment, which manufactures Easter baskets, costs $74,000 and can be leased over seven years with payments being made at the beginning of each year. Analyze cash flows and determine which alternative has the lowest (present value) cost to the firm.Example:“Should I Lease or Should I Buy?”The lessor calculates the lease payments based on an expected return of 11% over the seven years. (Ignore possible residual value of equipment to lessor.)The lease is a net lease.The firm is in the 40% marginal tax bracket.If bought, the equipment is expected to have a final salvage value of $7,500.“Should I Lease or Should I Buy?”The purchase of the equipment will result in a depreciation schedule of 20%, 32%, 19.2%, 11.52%, 11.52%, and 5.76% for the first six years (5-year property class) based on a $74,000 depreciable base. Loan payments are based on a 12% loan with payments occurring at the beginning of each period.Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the LeaseThe lessor will charge BW $14,148.27, beginning today, for seven years until expiration of the lease contract. L L L L L L L0 1 2 3 4 5 611%This is an annuity due that equals $74,000 today.$74,000.00 = L (PVIFA 11%, 7) (1.11)$66,666.67 = L (4.712)$14,148.27 = L The result indicates that a $74,000 lease that costs 11% annually for 7 years will require $14,147.68* annual payments.* Note that this is an annuity due, so set your calculator to “BGN” and the answer is the actual amount versus rounding with the tables.Solving for the PaymentNI/YPVPMTFVInputsCompute 7 11 74,000 0 –14147.68Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the LeaseNet cash outflows at t = 0: $ 14,148.27Net cash outflows at t = 1 to 6: $ 8,488.96Net cash outflows at t = 7: $ –5,659.31L L L L L L L0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7B = Tax-shield benefit (Inflow) = $ 5,659.31L = Lease payment (Outflow) = $ 14,148.27B B B B B B BDetermining the PV of Cash Outflows for the LeaseSince the lease payments are prepaid, the company is not able to deduct the expenses until the end of each year.The lessee, BW, can deduct the entire $14,148.27 as an expense each year. Thus, the net cash outflows are given as the difference between lease payments (outflow) and tax-shield benefits (inflow).The difference in risk between the lease and the purchase (using debt) is negligible and the appropriate before-tax cost is the same as debt, 12%. Comments for the previous slide:Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the LeaseThe after-tax cost of financing the lease should be equivalent to the after-tax cost of debt financing.After-tax cost = 12% ( 1 – 0.4 ) = 7.2%.The discounted present value of cash outflows: $14,148.27 x (PVIF 7.2%, 0) = $14,148.27 $ 8,488.96 x (PVIFA 7.2%, 6) = 40,214.34 $ -5,659.31 x (PVIF 7.2%, 7) = –3,478.56 Present Value $ 50,884.05Calculating the Present Value of Cash Outflows for the LeaseDetermining the PV of Cash Outflows for the Term LoanBW will make loan payments of $14,477.42, beginning today, for seven years until full payment of the loan.TL TL TL TL TL TL TL0 1 2 3 4 5 612%This is an annuity due that equals $74,000 today.$74,000.00 = TL (PVIFA 12%, 7) (1.12)$66,071.43 = TL (4.564)$14,477.42 = TL The result indicates that a $74,000 term loan that costs 12% annually for 7 years will require $14,477.42* annual payments.* Note that this is an annuity due, so set your calculator to “BGN”Solving for the PaymentNI/YPVPMTFVInputsCompute 7 12 74,000 0 -14477.42Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the Term LoanEnd of Loan Loan Annual Year Payment Balance* Interest 0 $14,477.42 $59,522.58 --- 1 14,477.42 52,187.87 $7,142.71 2 14,477.42 43,972.99 6,262.54 3 14,477.42 34,772.33 5,276.76 4 14,477.42 24,467.59 4,172.68 5 14,477.42 12,926.28 2,936.11 6 14,477.43 0 1,551.15Loan balance is the principal amount owed at the end of each year.Remember – Amortization Functions of the CalculatorPress: 2nd Amort 2 ENTER 2 ENTERResults*:BAL = 52,187.87 PRN = –7,334.71 INT = –7,142.71 Second payment only shown hereSource: Courtesy of Texas InstrumentsDetermining the PV of Cash Outflows for the Term LoanEnd of Annual Annual Tax-Shield Year Interest Depreciation* Benefits** 0 — $ 0 — 1 $7,142.71 14,800.00 $ 8,777.08 2 6,262.54 23,680.00 11,977.02 3 5,276.76 14,208.00 7,793.90 4 4,172.68 8,524.80 5,078.99 5 2,936.11 8,524.80 4,584.36 6 1,551.15 4,262.40 2,325.42 7 0 0 –3,000.00**** Based on schedule given on Slide 21.26.** 0.4 × (annual interest + annual depreciation).*** Tax due to recover salvage value, $7,500 x 0.4.Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the Term LoanEnd of Loan Tax-Shield Cash Present Year Payment Benefit Outflow* Value** 0 $14,477.42 — $14,477.42 $14,477.42 1 14,477.42 $ 8,777.08 5,700.34 5,317.48 2 14,477.42 11,977.02 2,500.40 2,175.80 3 14,477.42 7,793.90 6,683.52 5,425.26 4 14,477.42 5,078.99 9,398.43 7,116.66 5 14,477.42 4,584.36 9,893.06 6,988.06 6 14,477.43 2,325.42 12,152.01 8,007.18 7 –7,500.00*** –3,000.00 – 4,500.00 –2,765.98* Loan payment - tax-shield benefit.** Present value of the cash outflow discounted at 7.2%.*** Salvage value that is recovered when owned.Determining the PV of Cash Outflows for the Term LoanThe present value of costs for the term loan is $46,741.88. The present value of the lease program is $50,884.059. The least costly alternative is the term loan. Basket Wonders should proceed with the term loan rather than the lease.Other considerations: The tax rate of the potential lessee, timing and magnitude of the cash flows, discount rate employed, and uncertainty of the salvage value and their impacts on the analysis.