Stage model of information processing and applications in teaching and learning

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OF HNUE 2011, Vol. 56, N◦. 1, pp. 86-92 STAGE MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Tran Khanh Ngoc Hanoi National University of Education E-mail: ngoctunga1@gmail.com Abstract. This paper discusses The Stage Model of Information Process- ing - the most widely accepted approach describing some stages for how hu- mans take in, process, remember, forget, and use information. This model proposes that information is processed and stored in three stages: Sensory memory, Short-term memory (or Working memory) and Long-term memory through main activities: (1) Acquiring information from environment stim- ulus; (2) Moving information from the sensory memory to the short-term or working memory; (3) Handling the information appropriately while it is in working memory; (4) Moving information correctly from working memory to long-term storage (long-term memory) and (5) Retrieving information accurately from long-term memory to working memory. The paper ends with discussions on the activities for developing instruction that is built on the stage model of information processing discussed. Keywords: information processing, long-term memory, short-term mem- ory, cognitive process, instructional activities 1. Introduction Human learning is a complex activity and the question How do people learn? is a subject that has been of interest for many educators. This is because how one learns, acquires new information, and retains previous information guides selection of long-term learning objectives and methods of effective instruction. This paper discusses one of the most widely accepted theories about the mechanics of cognitive processes or the learning process that is labelled the stage model of information processing based on the work by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968). By describing the characteristics of each stage, this paper suggests some notes for the teacher to de- veloping instruction effectively. 2. Content This model proposes that information is processed and stored in three stages: Sensory memory, Short-term memory (or working memory) and Long-term memory 86 Stage model of information processing and applications in teaching and learning with main activities: (1) Acquiring information from environmental stimulus; (2) Moving information from the sensory memory to the short-term or working mem- ory; (3) Handling the information appropriately while it is in working memory; (4) Moving information correctly from working memory to long-term storage (long-term memory); (5) Retrieving information accurately from long-term memory to working memory. Firgure 1. A stage model of information processing [2,3] 2.1. Sensory memory Firstly, information enters the human information processing system through the senses. Sensory memory is the stage of transduction of energy. The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, tempreture, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce this external energy to the nerve pulses which the brain can understand through the electro-chemical activities. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing) [2]. After information has reached the sensory register, they will be moved to the short-term memory or working memory. But, not all information is transferred. Many researches note two major features of moved information. First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature. We focus our attention on information when it somehow arouses our curiosity. Second, we are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before beginning our presentations, we can take advantage of this principle. 87 Tran Khanh Ngoc 2.2. Short-term memory or Working memory Short-term memory is also called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about or work with it at any given moment in time. Working memory is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is repeated (therefore, it is called the short-term memory) [3]. Contemporary cognitive research, summarized in Salisbury (1990), has stressed the critical importance of the working memory particularly in the cognitive development: Human beings do all their active thinking and problem solving in working memory. The quality of the input into working memory and of the operations that go on there determine the quality of learning and problem solving. The main activities occurring in working memory are getting information correctly into this short-term area, handling the information appropriately while it is there for moving information correctly from working memory to long-term storage (long-term memory) or using information in working memory to generate some kind of output. Getting information correctly into working memory: information is transferred to working memory through two sources (see Figure 1). We move information from the sensory register to the working memory by focusing attention on it (2) or we can bring information into short-term memory through the process of retrieval from long-term memory (5). Handling the information appropriately whilst it is in working memory (3): This is process of making connections between new information and other infor- mation that is retrieved from long-term memory or by chunking several pieces of information together to transfer it to the ready stored form or generating some specific responces. The two critical limitations on handling information in working memory are the small number of pieces of information it can handle and the short duration of time during which information can remain there (most adults can retain about seven items of information at a time for just a few seconds). Information will fade from working memory if it is not handled. When information fades from working memory, it disappears because the short-term space was needed for other incoming information. We can prevent this type of fading by continuing to focus attention on the information, by constantly rehearsing it, or by transferring it to long-term memory. 2.3. Long-term memory Long-term memory is the storage of information for a long time. An important goal of education is to help learners store information in long-term memory and to use that information in order to effectively solve problems. Long-term memory is also called unconscious memory because its advantage 88 Stage model of information processing and applications in teaching and learning is that we do not have to constantly rehearse information to keep it in storage there. In addition, there is no restrictive limit on the amount of information we can store in long-term memory. If we move information to long-term memory, it stays there for a long time - perhaps permanently! To use this information in long-term memory, we must move it back to our working memory, using a process called retrieval. The two issues that should be noted in using the long-term memory are orga- nization (types) of knowledge and activities occurring in long-term memory. * Organization (types) of knowledge in long-term memory. As information is stored in long-term memory, it is organized using one or more structures. There are actually three different types (or aspects) of long-term memory: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory. Episodic memory refers to our ability to recall personal experiences from our past, such as events that happened during our childhood, a football match we saw last week, or activities we did in the morning... When we try to recall the infor- mation, we attempt to reconstruct these episodes by picturing the events in our minds. Semantic memory stores facts and generalized information. It contains verbal information, concepts, rules, principles, and problem-solving skills. Information is stored in semantic memory in networks or schemata. Therefore, information is most easily stored in semantic memory when it is meaningful - that is, easily related to existing networks or schemata. The newest researches about the brain show that the more connections are made from a concept or idea, the easier it is to recall it. Procedural memory refers to the ability to remember how to perform a task or to employ a strategy through a series of steps. When we retrieve information from procedural memory, we retrieve one step, which triggers the next... Classifying the organization of knowledge in long-term memory above helps us indentify and selecting key strategies to process information learned. In fact, these various parts of long-term memory do not operate in isolation from one another; they are always related and overlapped. * The activities occurring in long-term memory are transferring information accurately to long-term memory and retrieving the information accurately from long-term memory to working memory. To be transferred from working memory into long-term memory, information must be encoded or elaborated. These terms refer to the process of relating infor- mation to other information that is already stored in long-term memory. The key ingredient that facilitates long-term storage is meaningfulness of information - re- fer to the number of connections between new and old information. One concept or piece of information is more meaningful than another if the learner can make a larger number of connections between that piece of information and other information al- 89 Tran Khanh Ngoc ready in long-term memory. So, one of the best ways to promote meaningfulness is for the learner to have an abundance of information related to a topic already well organized in long-term memory. Retrieving the information from long-term memory to working memory is closely related and linear with encoding and storing information. The more effec- tively information is encoded, the more easily it is retrieved. Since meaningfulness is a critical factor in storing information, one of the most important strategies for promoting long-term storage and retrieval of information is to have the student learn it in a meaningful context. In addition, repeated practice usually using the learned information to understand other concepts and solve real problems is a good strategy and should be applied in teaching and learning. The analyses in preceding paragraphs show characteristics of each stage in the information processing. Understanding this, teachers can build instructional activities that are suitable and facilitated for learning process of students. The features of each stage and some applications of the information processing approach in the classroom are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Features of each stage and applications of information processing approach in the classroom. Activities of information processing Features of each stage Some activities teachers can do to im- prove students learning process (1) Acquiring in- formation from environment stimulus - Interesting fea- ture of informa- tion. - Call for attention, state objectives and re- late them to students needs and interests. - Ask students to call to mind relevant prior learning before beginning the presentations or give an exercise or review activity to recall previous information. (2) Moving information from the sensory memory to the working memory - Known pattern of information. - Introduce the lesson clearly & concisely speak clearly, draw diagrams that the stu- dents understand. - Minimize factors that will interfere with at- tention. - Check to verify whether the information has been attended to and transferred correctly. 90 Stage model of information processing and applications in teaching and learning (3) Handling information appropriately whilst it is in working memory - The small num- ber of pieces of information can be handled. - The short duration of time during which information can remain there. - Divide the content to be learned into a num- ber of pieces of information small enough to work with and go from simple to complex when presenting new material. - Point out specifically the important ele- ments in the presentation. - Re-phrase key points often enough to keep them active in working memory, example: state important principles several times in different ways during presentation of infor- mation. (4) Moving information correctly from working memory to long-term memory - The meaning- fulness of infor- mation. - Show students how to indentify the types of knowledge (episodic, semantic or procedu- ral) in order to select appropriate methods for encoding and storing effectively. (5) Retrieving information accurately from long-term mem- ory to working memory - Organization of knowledge in long-term mem- ory (episodic, semantic and procedural memory) - Show students how to categorize (chunk) re- lated information and provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information: asking questions about the topic, find out a logical sequence to concepts and skills, look for similarities and differences among con- cepts, connect new information to something already known... - Provide students with real problems, exer- cises or situations for using learned knowl- edge and repetition of learning ... 3. Conclusion The stage model of information processing describes three stages for how hu- mans take in, process, remember, forget and use information. Although it is an oversimplification model of human thought processes, this model does provide use- ful insights into how to help learners acquire and retain information. Applying this model of information processing in education, teachers should design learning and instructional activities that are appropriate for cognitive process of students in order to help them learn more effectively. 91 Tran Khanh Ngoc REFERENCES [1] Denise Chalmer, Richard Fuller, 1995. Teaching for learning at university. Edith Cowan University. Western Australia. [2] Huitt, W., 2003. The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from [3] Lutz, S., & Huitt, W., 2003. Information processing and memory: Theory and applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. [4] Monetti, D., Hummel, J., & Huitt, W., 2006. Educational psychology principles that contribute to effective teaching and learning. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 1, 22-25. 92